Glossary & Background Information

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Asia Minor: Asia Minor Asia Minor (mì¹ner), peninsula, W Asia, forming the Asian part of Turkey. Most of the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. The first civilization established there (c.1800 B.C.) was that of the HITTITES. The site of TROY and other ancient cities, Asia Minor was subjugated by many invaders, including the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Crusaders. Conquered by the Turks between the 13th and 15th cent. A.D., it was part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE until the establishment of modern Turkey after WORLD WAR I. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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Epistles: epistle
epistle, in the BIBLE, a letter of the NEW TESTAMENT. The Pauline Epistles (ascribed to St. PAUL) are ROMANS, First and Second CORINTHIANS, GALATIANS, EPHESIANS, PHILIPPIANS, COLOSSIANS, First and Second THESSALONIANS, First and Second TIMOTHY, TITUS, PHILEMON, and HEBREWS. JAMES, First and Second PETER, First, Second, and Third JOHN, and JUDE are traditionally called Catholic, or General, Epistles. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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Balkans:Balkan Peninsula, generally mountainous land area, SE Europe, projecting south from the line of the Sava and Danube rivers between the Black, Aegean, Mediterranean, Ionian, and Adriatic seas. It comprises all or parts of nine nations—Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Turkey, and Yugoslavia—collectively referred to as the Balkan states. The peninsula, which was at times part of ancient Greece and the Roman and Byzantine empires, was ruled by Turks as part of the Ottoman Empire from the late 15th cent. until the end of the BALKAN WARS in 1913.
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Expediency: ex·pe·di·en·cy , ex·pe·di·en·cy (îk-spê¹dê-en-sê) noun, plural ex·pe·di·en·cies
1. Appropriateness to the purpose at hand; fitness.
2. Adherence to self-serving means: an ambitious politician, guided by expediency rather than principle.
3. A means; an expedient.

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Taurus Mountains: Taurus Mountains A range of southern Turkey extending about 563 km (350 mi) parallel to the Mediterranean coast. It rises to 3,736.6 m (12,251 ft) and has important mineral deposits.
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Paganism: pa·gan (pâ¹gen) noun
1. One who is not a Christian, Moslem, or Jew; a heathen.
2. One who has no religion.
3. A non-Christian.
4. A hedonist.

adjective
1. Not Christian, Moslem, or Jewish.
2. Professing no religion; heathen.

[Middle English, from Late Latin pâgânus, from Latin, country-dweller, civilian, from pâgus, country, rural district.]
— pa¹gan·dom (-dem) noun
— pa¹gan·ish adjective
— pa¹gan·ism noun
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Saracen: Saracens, term used by Christians in the Middle Ages to designate Muslims in general, although strictly the term applied only to the people of NW Arabia. In Spain the term MOORS was used.
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Caliph: caliphate (kâ¹lî-fât´), the rulership of ISLAM. Since Islam is theoretically a theocracy, the caliph is ideally both temporal and spiritual leader of the Muslims. When MUHAMMAD the Prophet died, ABU BAKR was chosen as the first caliph. After the caliphate of Ali (656–61) the caliphate split between the Umayyads, who ruled from Damascus, and the ABBASIDS, who ruled from Baghdad. The Abbasids massacred the Umayyads in 750, but one member escaped to Spain, where he established the Western Caliphate, or the Caliphate of Córdoba; it lasted until 1031. A third caliphate, established by the Fatimid sect in Africa, lasted from 909 to 1171. After the rise of the Ottoman Turks, the sultans assumed the title of caliph. The title died out with the last sultan in 1924. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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Greek Orthodox Church: Orthodox Eastern Church, community of Christian churches, independent but mutually recognized, originating in E Europe and SW Asia through a split with the Western church. They agree in accepting the decrees of the first seven ecumenical councils and in rejecting the jurisdiction of the pope. Orthodox and Roman Catholics view each other as schismatic, but consider the Nestorian, Coptic, Jacobite, and Armenian churches heretical. The split between East and West began in the 5th cent. and became definite only with the condemnation of the patriarch of Constantinople by Pope LEO IX (1054). The CRUSADES embittered feelings, and many attempts at reunion since have failed. Eastern church liturgy is always sung and is not usually celebrated daily as in the West, and communion is given in a spoon. Parish priests may marry; bishops and monks may not. The term Greek Church may be used very loosely and is best confined to the patriarchate of Constantinople, the Church of Greece, and churches using the Byzantine rite (liturgy in Greek). Among the national churches, the most ancient is the Church of Cyprus, and the most important is the Russian Orthodox Church. The latter was first under Constantinople, but a patriarchate was set up in Moscow in 1589. The rite is in Old Church Slavonic. After the Russian Revolution the church suffered greatly and went into an eclipse, but a new patriarch was elected in 1943. After World War II, Communist influence greatly weakened the Orthodox churches in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Poland. With the collapse of Communist rule in the countries of E Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s, many Orthodox churches revived and gained new members. The U.S. has several Orthodox churches with ties to Old World churches. Several observers from Orthodox churches attended the Second VATICAN COUNCIL in 1962, and afterward most agreed to open a dialogue with Rome as equals.
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Slav: Slav·ic (slä¹vîk) adjective
Abbr. Slav.
Of or relating to the Slavs or their languages.

noun
Abbr. Slav.
A branch of the Indo-European language family that includes Bulgarian, Belorussian, Czech, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian, and Wendish.
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Hippodrome: hip·po·drome (hîp¹e-drom´) noun
1. Sports. An arena for equestrian shows.
2. An open-air stadium with an oval course for horse and chariot races in ancient Greece and Rome.

[French, from Old French ypodrome, from Latin hippodromos, from Greek : hippos, horse + dromos, racecourse.]
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Astern: ·stern (e-stûrn¹) adverb & adjective
Nautical.
1. Behind a vessel.
2. At or to the stern of a vessel.
3. With or having the stern foremost; backward.
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Cowls: cowl (koul) noun
1. a. The hood or hooded robe worn especially by a monk. b. A draped neckline on a woman's garment.
2. A hood-shaped covering used to increase the draft of a chimney.
3. The top portion of the front part of an automobile body, supporting the windshield and dashboard.
4. The cowling on an aircraft.

verb, transitive
cowled, cowl·ing, cowls

To cover with or as if with a cowl.

[Middle English coule, from Old English cugele, from Late Latin cuculla, from Latin cucullus, hood.]
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Provence: Pro·vence (pre-väns¹, prô-vaNs¹)
A historical region and former province of southeast France bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. It was settled c. 600 B.C. by Greeks and later by Phoenician merchants and was colonized by Rome in the second century B.C. Provence became part of the kingdom of Arles in 933 A.D. and later passed to the Angevin dynasty (1246) and to France (1486).
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Inquisition: Inquisition (în´kwî-zîsh¹en), tribunal of the Roman Catholic Church formed to suppress heresy. In 1233 Pope GREGORY IX established the papal Inquisition to combat the heresy of the ALBIGENSES. The Inquisition used judicial torture, but rarely condemned prisoners to burn; imprisonment was the norm. To deal with Protestantism, PAUL III assigned (1542) the Inquisition to the Holy Office. This was replaced (1965) by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which governs vigilance in matters of faith. The Spanish Inquisition, independent of the papal Inquisition, was established (1478) by the Spanish monarchs to punish converted Jews and Muslims who were insincere. Headed by people such as Tomás de TORQUEMADA, it was notoriously harsher than the medieval Inquisition and much freer with the death penalty. Soon every Spaniard came to fear its power. It was finally abolished in 1834.


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Alps: Alps (àlps)
A mountain system of south-central Europe, about 805 km (500 mi) long and 161 km (100 mi) wide, curving in an arc from the Riviera on the Mediterranean Sea through northern Italy and southeast France, Switzerland, southern Germany, and Austria and into northwest Yugoslavia. The highest peak is Mont Blanc, 4,810.2 m (15,771 ft), on the French-Italian border.
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Parthians:

Parthia (pär¹thê-e), ancient country of Asia, SE of the Caspian Sea. It was included in the Assyrian and Persian empires, the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great, and the Syrian empire. In 250 B.C. the Parthians, led by ARSACES, founded the Parthian empire. They defeated the Romans in 53 B.C. but were in turned vanquished by them in 39–38 B.C. The empire declined and in A.D. 226 was conquered by ARDASHIR I, the founder of the Persian Sassanid dynasty. The chief Parthian cities were Ecbatana, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Hecatompylos.
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Medes: Media (mê¹dê-e), ancient country of W Asia, in a region now in W Iran and S Azerbaijan. Its inhabitants were the Medes, an Indo-European people, who extended their rule over PERSIA in the reign of Sargon (d. 705 B.C.) and captured NINEVEH in 612 B.C. Their capital was Ecbatana. Media was forcibly annexed (c.550 B.C.) to Persia by CYRUS THE GREAT
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Elamites: E·lam (ê¹lem) also Su·si·a·na (s¡´zê-ä¹ne, -àn¹e)
An ancient country of southwest Asia in present-day southwest Iran. It was established east of the Tigris River before 3000 B.C. and was known for its warlike people, traditionally thought to be descended from Noah's son Shem.
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Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia (mès´e-pe-tâ¹mê-e) [Gr., = between rivers], ancient region of W Asia around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, now in Iraq. Called the "cradle of civilization," the heart of the area was a plain rendered fertile in ancient times by canals. Settlements have been found in N Mesopotamia, which probably date from 5000 B.C., and urban civilization later arose in S Mesopotamia in city states such as Erech and Ur (see SUMER). AKKAD emerged (c.2340 B.C.) as the region's first empire and was followed by BABYLONIA and ASSYRIA. Mesopotamia was still important in the Byzantine Empire and in the Abbasid caliphate, but the Mongols devastated the area in A.D. 1258. Today it is largely arid and barren, but its rich oil fields have international importance.
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Synagogues: synagogue [from Gr., = assembly], place of assembly for Jewish worship. The institution probably dates from the Babylonian exile (6th cent. B.C.). By the 1st cent. A.D. it had become the center of Jewish religious, intellectual, and communal life. The destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70 and the dispersion of the Jews increased the synagogue's importance. In modern times in the West, its central role has shifted to purely religious activities, although recently that trend has been somewhat reversed. In the U.S., the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform synagogue associations are organized in the Synagogue Council of America.
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Persian Empire: Persia (pûr¹zhe), old name for the Asian country of IRAN, in which the ancient Persian empire had its core. The early Persians were presumably a nomadic tribe that filtered through the Caucasus to the Iranian plateau. By the 7th cent. B.C. they were established in the present region of Fars, which then belonged to the Assyrian empire. Persian rulers were early associated with the Medes, who created a strong state in the 7th cent. B.C. CYRUS THE GREAT, the first of the ACHAEMENIDS, made himself ruler of MEDIA in the mid-6th cent. B.C. and by rapid conquest established the great Persian empire. From the beginning the Persians built on the foundations of earlier states, borrowing the political structure of Assyria and the arts of Babylonia and Egypt. The country was beset by dynastic troubles, concerning first the claims of Cambyses and later those of DARIUS I. Darius organized a highly efficient centralized system of administration and extended Persian rule east into modern Afghanistan and NW India and as far north as the Danube. The Greeks revolted successfully in the PERSIAN WARS, and after the mid-5th cent. B.C. Persia was weakened by dynastic troubles, e.g., the rebellion of CYRUS THE YOUNGER against ARTAXERXES II and the successful revolt of Egypt. Finally, ALEXANDER THE GREAT destroyed the Achaemenid empire. After Alexander's death most of Persia fell to the Seleucids, who, though they introduced a fruitful Hellenistic culture, were unable to maintain control. PARTHIA, which broke away in the mid-3d cent. B.C., became a kind of successor to the old Persian empire and came to rival Rome. Its decline was followed by the establishment of a new Persian empire in A.D. c.226 under the Sassanids. This state flourished until A.D. 637, when invading Arabs took the capital, Ctesiphon. Islam replaced ZOROASTRIANISM, and the caliphate made Persia part of a larger pattern, from which modern Iran eventually emerged.
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Aramaic: Ar·a·ma·ic (àr´e-mâ¹îk) noun
A Semitic language, comprising several dialects, originally of the ancient Arameans but widely used by non-Aramean peoples throughout southwest Asia from the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. Also called Aramean, Chaldean.
— Ar´a·ma¹ic adjective
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Palmyra: Pal·my·ra (pàl-mì¹re)
An ancient city of central Syria northeast of Damascus. Said to have been built by Solomon, it prospered under the Romans because of its location on the trade route from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. The city was partially destroyed by the emperor Aurelian after a people's revolt in A.D. 273.
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Palestine: Palestine (pàl¹î-stìn´), historic region on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, comprising parts of modern Israel, Jordan, and Egypt; also known as the Holy Land. This article discusses the physical geography and history of Palestine until the UN took up the Palestine problem in 1947; for the economy and later history, see GAZA STRIP, ISRAEL, JORDAN, and WEST BANK. Palestine is the Holy Land of the Jews, promised to them by God according to the Bible; of the Christians because it was the scene of Jesus' life; and of the Muslims because Jerusalem is the traditional site of Muhammad's ascent to heaven. Palestine comprises three geographic zones: a part of the GREAT RIFT VALLEY, a ridge, and a coastal plain. The earliest known settlements in Palestine, e.g., JERICHO, may date from c.8000 B.C. An independent Hebrew kingdom was established c.1000 B.C. After c.950 B.C. this kingdom broke up into two states, Israel and Judah. Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans in turn conquered Palestine, which fell to the Muslim Arabs by A.D. 640. The area was the focus of the CRUSADES and was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1516. By the late 19th cent., ZIONISM arose with the aim of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and during World War I the British, who captured the area, appeared to support this goal. After the League of Nations approved (1922) the British mandate of Palestine, Jews immigrated there in large numbers despite Arab opposition. There was tension and violence between Jews and Arabs, and the British, unable to resolve the problem, turned (1947) the Palestine question over to the UN.
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Euphrates Valley: Bab·y·lo·ni·a
Bab·y·lo·ni·a (bàb´e-lo¹nê-e, -lon¹ye)
An ancient empire of Mesopotamia in the Euphrates River valley. It flourished under Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar II but declined after 562 B.C. and fell to the Persians in 539.
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Magi: Magi (mâ¹jì), priestly caste of ancient Persia. Magian priests headed ZOROASTRIANISM. The Magi were revered by classic authors as wise men, and their reputed power over demons gave rise to the word magic. For the Magi of Mat. 2, WISE MEN OF THE EAST.
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Chaldaism: including many of the folowing-
<Sorcery: sorcerer (noun)
sorcerer, wise man, seer, soothsayer, Chaldean, sortileger, DIVINER
astrologer, alchemist, OCCULTIST
Druid, Druidess
magus, mage, Magian, the Magi
thaumaturgist, wonder-worker,
shaman, witchdoctor, medicine man, fetishist, IDOLATER
obi-man, voodooist, hoodooist, spirit-raiser, OCCULTIST
conjuror, exorcist
charmer, snake-charmer
juggler, illusionist, CONJUROR
spellbinder, enchanter, wizard, warlock
magician, theurgist
necromancer, DIABOLIST
familiar, imp, evil spirit, DEVIL
sorcerer's apprentice
Merlin, Prospero, Gandalf
Faust, Pied Piper
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Divinations: divination (dîv´e-nâ¹shen), foreseeing future events or obtaining secret knowledge through divine sources, omens, or oracles. It is based on the belief that revelations are offered to humans in extrarational forms of knowledge: ancient Chaldeans studied birds' flight and patterns in water or entrails; the Greeks put their trust in the ORACLE. Present-day forms of divination include crystal gazing, palmistry, and astrology.
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Fornication: for·ni·ca·tion (fôr´nî-kâ¹shen) noun
Sexual intercourse between partners who are not married to each other.

Word History: The word fornication had a lowly beginning suitable to what has long been the low moral status of the word. The Latin word fornix, from which fornicâtio, the ancestor of fornication, is derived, meant "a vault, an arch." The term also referred to a vaulted cellar or similar place where prostitutes plied their trade. This sense of fornix in Late Latin yielded the verb fornicârì, "to commit fornication," from which is derived fornicâtio, "whoredom, fornication." Our word is first recorded in Middle English about 1303.
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Revelling: reveler (noun)
reveler, merry-maker, rioter, roisterer, gamboler, rollicker, frolicker
skylarker
drinker, drunk, DRUNKARD
feaster
party-goer,
pleasure-seeker, thrill-seeker
playboy, good-time girl
debauchee
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Adultery: a·dul·ter·y (e-dùl¹te-rê, -trê) noun
plural a·dul·ter·ies
Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a partner other than the lawful spouse.

[Middle English, from Old French adultere, from Latin adulterium, from adulter, adulterer.
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Seleucia-Ctesiphon: Tigris (tì¹grîs), major river of SW Asia, flowing c.1,150 mi (1,850 km) generally southeast from the Taurus Mts., E Turkey, across a wide floodplain in Iraq, to join the EUPHRATES at BASRA and to form the SHATT AL ARAB. It is widely used for irrigation in Iraq and increasingly in Turkey, and is navigable by shallow draft vessels upstream to Basra. Some of the great cities of ancient MESOPOTAMIA, including NINEVEH, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, stood on the banks of the river, called the Hiddekil in the Bible. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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Stint: stint (stînt) verb
stint·ed, stint·ing, stints verb, transitive
1. To restrict or limit, as in amount or number; be sparing with.
2. Archaic. To cause to stop
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Herat: He·rat (hè-rät¹)
A city of northwest Afghanistan on the Hari Rud east of Kabul. Located at a strategic position on an ancient trade route, it was ruled by numerous conquerors, primarily the Persians. Herat became part of Afghanistan in 1881. Population, 140,323.
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Samarcand: Samarkand (sàm¹er-kànd¹) or Samarqand, city (1987 est. pop. 388,000), UZBEKISTAN, on the Trans-Caspian RR. A major cotton and silk center, it also produces wine, tea, and such industrial goods as vehicle parts. The oldest central Asian city—and one of the world's oldest cities—Samarkand was on the ancient trade route between the Middle East and China. It was conquered (329 B.C.) by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, fell (8th cent. A.D.) to the Arabs, and became (9th cent.) a center of Islamic culture. Sacked (1220) by JENGHIZ KHAN, it revived as the capital of TIMUR's empire (14th–15th cent.). Samarkand fell to the Uzbeks c.1500 and to Russia in 1868. The city's old quarter contains Timur's mausoleum and many ancient mosques.
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Tartary: Tar·ta·ry (tär¹te-rê) or Ta·ta·ry (tä¹-)
A vast region of eastern Europe and northern Asia controlled by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries. It extended as far east as the Pacific Ocean under the rule of Genghis Khan.
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Khorasan: Afghanistan, occupying a favored invasion route since antiquity, has been variously known as Ariana or Bactria (in ancient times) and Khorasan (in the Middle Ages).
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Bagdad: Baghdad (bàg¹dàd´) or Bagdad, city (1987 pop. 3,236,000), capital and largest city of Iraq, central Iraq, on both banks of the Tigris R. Most of Iraq's industries are in Baghdad; they produced refined oil, carpets, leather, textiles, and cement. The present city was founded (A.D. 762) by the ABBASIDS and became their capital. Under the caliph HARUN AR-RASHID it developed into one of the great cities of Islam. The Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258; it became (1638) part of the Ottoman Empire, and during World War I it was captured (1917) by the British. In 1921 the city was made the capital of newly created Iraq. Baghdad is rich in archaeological remains and has several museums. Many government offices and other structures were destroyed in the PERSIAN GULF WAR.
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Turkestan: Tur·ki·stan Tur·ki·stan also Tur·ke·stan (tûr¹kî-stàn´, -stän´)
A historical region of west-central Asia extending east from the Caspian Sea to the border of China and south from the Aral Sea into Afghanistan. It has long been a crossroads for trade and conquest between East and West. Much of the region is now part of the U.S.S.R.
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Tartar: Tar·tar (tär¹ter) noun
1. Also Ta·tar (tä¹ter). A member of any of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples of central Asia who invaded western Asia and eastern Europe in the Middle Ages.

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Syriac: Syr·i·ac (sîr¹ê-àk´) noun
An ancient Aramaic language spoken in Syria from the 3rd to the 13th century that survives as the liturgical language of several Eastern Christian churches.
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Uigur: Uigurs
Uigurs or Uighurs, Turkic-speaking people, numbering 4 million, living mainly in W China. They became prominent in the 7th cent. when they supported the T'ang dynasty (see CHINA). In 744 they took Mongolia. When ousted (840) by the Turkic Kyrgyz, they founded an empire in XINJIANG, China, that lasted until the MONGOL invasion (13th cent.). The Uigurs were nomads with some agriculture and trade. First converted to MANICHAEISM, they later became SUNNI Muslims. Today most people in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region are of Uigur descent.
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Emir: e·mir (î-mîr¹, â-mîr¹) also a·mir (e-mîr¹, â-mîr¹) noun A prince, chieftain, or governor, especially in the Middle East. [French émir, from Arabic 'amìr, commander, from 'amara, to command.]
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Miscreants: mis·cre·ant (mîs¹krê-ent) noun
1. An evildoer; a villain.
2. An infidel; a heretic.

[Middle English miscreaunt, heretic, from Old French mescreant, present participle of mescroire, to disbelieve : mes-, wrongly, not. See mis-1 + croire, to believe (from Latin crêdere).]
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Patriarch: pa·tri·arch (pâ¹trê-ärk´) noun
1. A man who rules a family, clan, or tribe.
2. In the Old Testament: a. One of the antediluvian progenitors of the human race, from Adam to Noah. b. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or any of Jacob's 12 sons, the eponymous progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel.
3. Used formerly as a title for the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria.
4. Roman Catholic Church. A bishop who holds the highest episcopal rank after the pope.
5. Eastern Orthodox Church. Any one of the bishops of the sees of Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Moscow, and Jerusalem who has authority over other bishops.
6. Judaism. The head of the Sanhedrin in Syrian Palestine from about 180 B.C. to A.D. 429.
7. One who is regarded as the founder or original head of an enterprise, an organization, or a tradition.
8. A very old, venerable man; an elder.
9. The oldest member of a group: the patriarch of the herd.
[Middle English patriarche, from Old French, from Late Latin patriarcha, from Greek patriarkhês : patria, lineage (from patêr, patr-, father) + -arkhês, -arch.]
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Secular: sec·u·lar (sèk¹ye-ler) adjective
1. Worldly rather than spiritual.
2. Not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body: secular music.
3. Relating to or advocating secularism.
4. Not bound by monastic restrictions, especially not belonging to a religious order. Used of the clergy.
5. Occurring or observed once in an age or a century.
6. Lasting from century to century.
Noun
1. A member of the secular clergy.
2. A layperson.
[Middle English, from Old French seculer, from Late Latin saeculâris, from Latin, of an age, from saeculum, generation, age.]
— sec¹u·lar·ly adver
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Languedoc: Lan·gue·doc (läng-dôk¹, läNg-)
A historical region and former province of south-central France on an arm of the Mediterranean Sea west of the Rhone River. Named after the Romance language of its inhabitants, it was conquered by the Franks in the eighth century and incorporated into the French royal domain in 1271.
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Gascony: Gas·co·ny (gàs¹ke-nê)
A historical region and former province of southwest France. Settled originally by Basque peoples, it was conquered by the Romans and later by the Visigoths and Franks. A new wave of Basque invaders from south of the Pyrenees established the duchy of Vasconia in the sixth century A.D. In 1052 Gascony passed to the duchy of Aquitaine, and after serving as a major battlefield during the Hundred Years' War, it finally became part of the French royal domain in 1607.
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Crucifixes: cru·ci·fix (kr¡¹se-fîks´) noun
1. An image or figure of Jesus on the cross.
2. A cross viewed as a symbol of Jesus's crucifixion.
[Middle English, from Old French, from Late Latin crucifìxus, from Latin, past participle of crucifìgere, crucify.]
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Venerated: re·vere (rî-vîr¹) verb, transitive
re·vered, re·ver·ing, re·veres
To regard with awe, deference, and devotion.

[French révérer, from Old French reverer, from Latin reverêrì : re-, re- + verêrì, to respect.]
Synonyms: revere, worship, venerate, adore, idolize. These verbs all mean to regard with the deepest respect, deference, and esteem. Revere suggests awe coupled with profound honor: "At least one third of the population . . . reveres every sort of holy man" (Rudyard Kipling). Worship implies reverent love and homage rendered to God or a god: The ancient Egyptians, who were polytheists, worshiped a number of gods and sacred animals. In a more general sense worship connotes an often uncritical but always very admiring regard: "She had worshiped intellect" (Charles Kingsley). Venerate connotes reverence accorded by virtue especially of dignity, character, or age: "I venerate the memory of my grandfather" (Horace Walpole). To adore is to worship with deep, often rapturous love: "O come, let us adore him, Christ the Lord!" ("Adeste Fideles"). A number of the students detested the subject but adored the teacher. Idolize implies worship like that accorded an object of religious devotion: He idolizes his wife and doesn't care who knows it.
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Communion: communion, a SACRAMENT in most of CHRISTIANITY, a partaking of bread and wine that repeats the actions of JESUS at the LAST SUPPER. Some—among them all Roman Catholics—believe that the substances actually and miraculously become the body and blood of Jesus (transubstantiation). Others believe that the sacrament is symbolic; but all believe that the recipient is united mystically with Jesus. The sacrament is called the Eucharist by some (including Roman Catholics) and the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion by many Protestants.
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Expositions: ex·po·si·tion (èk´spe-zîsh¹en) noun
1. A setting forth of meaning or intent.
2. a. A statement or rhetorical discourse intended to give information about or an explanation of difficult material. b. The art or technique of composing such discourses.
[Middle English exposicioun, from Old French exposition, from Latin expositio, exposition-, from expositus, past participle of exponere, to expound. See expound.]

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Bernard Of Clairvaux: Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint, 1090?–1153, French churchman, Doctor of the Church. He founded (1115) a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux, where he remained as abbot for the rest of his life, despite efforts to move him higher. His holiness, intellect, and eloquence made him one of the most powerful figures of his day; he brought about the condemnation of Peter ABELARD and preached the Second CRUSADE. His writings exerted a profound influence on Roman Catholic spirituality, especially that known as devotio moderna. He was canonized in 1174. Feast: Aug. 20.
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Demons: de·mon (dê¹men) noun
1. An evil supernatural being; a devil.
2. A persistently tormenting person, force, or passion: the demon of drug addiction.
[Middle English, from Late Latin daemon, from Latin, spirit, from Greek daimon, divine power.]
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Albi: Al·bi·gen·ses (àl´be-jèn¹sêz´) plural noun
The members of a Catharist religious sect of southern France in the 12th and 13th centuries, exterminated for heresy during the Inquisition.
[Medieval Latin, pl. of Albigênsis, inhabitant of Albiga, Albi, a town of southern France where the sect was dominant.]
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Dalmatia: (dàlmâ¹she), historic region and province of CROATIA, extending along the ADRIATIC SEA from Rijeka to the Gulf of Kotor. Split is the capital. Dalmatia is mountainous, except for a coastal lowland whose scenic beauty attracts many tourists. Other economic activities include agriculture and fishing. A Roman province, Dalmatia was divided by the 10th cent. between the kingdoms of Croatia and Serbia. By 1420 Venice held most of the region. Various parts of Dalmatia passed (16th–20th cent.) to Hungary, the Turks, France, and Austria. After 1918 the region became part of YUGOSLAVIA. Most of Dalmatia was occupied by Italy during World War II. After Croatia declared (1991) its independence from Yugoslavia, the southern Dalmatian town of Dubrovnik was the scene of heavy fighting between Croatian and Yugoslav forces.
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Albania: Albania (àl-bâ¹nê-e), Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially Republic of Albania, republic (1991 est. pop. 3,350,000),11,101 sq mi (28,752 sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula; bordered by Yugoslavia (N), Macedonia (E), and Greece (S). TIRANË is the capital. Except for the fertile Adriatic coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to 9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab, on the Macedonian border. Albania is rich in mineral resources, notably oil and natural gas, lignite, copper, chromium, and limestone, and mining was the largest source of income. The leading industries include food processing, textiles, cement and building materials, petroleum products, and footwear. With the end of Communist rule, however, the mining and industry have largely collapsed, and many Albanians have illegally emigrated to Greece in search of work. About one fifth of the land is cultivated, largely as small, inefficient farms. Olives, grapes, grains, cotton, tobacco, and livestock are the main agricultural products. More than 95% of the population is ethnically Albanian; the Albanian language is an Indo-European tongue with two dialects. The population is predominantly Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities.
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Prelates: prel·ate (prèl¹ît) noun
A high-ranking member of the clergy, especially a bishop.
[Middle English prelat, from Old French, from Medieval Latin praelâtus, from Latin, past participle of praeferre, to carry before, to prefer : prae-, pre- + lâtus, brought.]
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Indulgences: indulgence, in the Roman Catholic Church, the pardon of temporal punishment due for SIN. Indulgences are granted out of the Treasury of Merit won for the church by Jesus and the saints. Until their sale was made unlawful by the Council of TRENT (1562), the abuse of indulgences was common, and it was this abuse that Martin LUTHER first denounced.
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par·don·er (pär¹dn-er) noun
1. One that pardons: a pardoner of the sins of others.
2. A medieval ecclesiastic authorized to raise money for religious works by granting papal indulgences to contributors.
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Apostolic Times: The time during which the first apostles, (Peter, John, Paul etc .., lived)
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Prior: pri·or (prì¹er) noun
1. A monastic officer in charge of a priory or ranking next below the abbot of an abbey.
2. One of the ruling magistrates of the medieval Italian republic of Florence.
[Middle English priour, from Old English and Old French prior, both from Medieval Latin, from Latin, superior.]
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Vaudois: Wal·den·ses (wòl-dèn¹sêz, wôl-) plural noun
A Christian sect of dissenters that originated in southern France in the late 12th century and adopted Calvinist doctrines in the 16th century. Also called Vaudois.
[Medieval Latin Waldênsês, after Peter Waldo.]
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Huss: Huss, John (hùs), Czech Jan Hus, 1369?–1415, Czech religious reformer. A priest, he was influenced early by the writings of John WYCLIF. Huss attacked the abuses of the clergy and was supported by Holy Roman Emperor WENCESLAUS, who made him rector of the Univ. of Prague (1409). Huss, however, incurred the hostility of the archbishop of Prague, who had him excommunicated in 1410. He then wrote his chief works, including De ecclesia, in exile near Tabor. Because Huss denied the infallibility of an immoral pope and asserted the ultimate authority of Scripture over the church, he is generally considered a forerunner or the Protestant REFORMATION. The Emperor SIGISMUND invited him to defend his views at the Council of Constance (1414–18) and granted him a safe-conduct. In 1414 Huss presented himself at the council, which refused to recognize his safe-conduct, tried him as a heretic, and burned him at the stake.
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Decretal: de·cre·tal (dî-krêt¹l) noun
Roman Catholic Church.
A decree, especially a papal letter giving a decision on a point or question of canon law.
[Middle English, from Old French decretale, from Late Latin dêcrêtâlis, fixed by decree, from Latin dêcrêtum, principle, decision.
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Anathematise: Malediction: cursed (adjective)
cursed, wished, wished on one
accursed, unblessed, execrable
anathematized, under a ban, excommunicated, damned, CONDEMNED
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Primitive: prim·i·tive (prîm¹î-tîv) adjective
Abbr. prim.
1. Not derived from something else; primary or basic.
2. a. Of or relating to an earliest or original stage or state; primeval. b. Being little evolved from an early ancestral type.
3. Characterized by simplicity
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Sacraments: sacrament, an outward sign of something sacred. Christians generally believe sacraments were instituted by Jesus and are visible signs of invisible GRACE. Traditionally, the Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and certain Anglicans believe in seven sacraments—Eucharist (see COMMUNION), BAPTISM, CONFIRMATION, PENANCE, ANOINTING THE SICK, matrimony (see MARRIAGE) and HOLY ORDERS—which, they hold, bestow grace. Most Protestant denominations recognize two sacraments, baptism and communion, and hold that faith, rather than the sacraments, provides grace.
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Election: e·lec·tion (î-lèk¹shen) noun
1. a. The act or power of electing. b. The fact of being elected.
2. The right or ability to make a choice. See Synonyms at choice.
3. Theology. Predestined salvation, especially as conceived by Calvinists.
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chosen (cho¹zen) verb
Past participle of choose.
adjective
1. Selected from or preferred above others: the chosen few.
2. Having been selected by God; elect.
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