Glossary Pilgrim Church

Glossary

Canon of Scripture: The Canon - Old Testament The canon, or officially accepted list of books in the Hebrew Bible, consists of 24 books according to Jewish reckoning and is divided into three parts: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. The Law (Torah), often called the Pentateuch, comprises five books, GENESIS through DEUTERONOMY. The Prophets (Nevi im) are divided into three parts: the earlier prophets (Joshua, JUDGES, 1 and 2 SAMUEL, and 1 and 2 KINGS); the later prophets (ISAIAH, Jeremiah, and EZEKIEL); and twelve books called the Minor Prophets because of their brevity. The 11 Writings (Ketuvim) include three poetic books (PSALMS, PROVERBS, and Job); the five scrolls (SONG OF SOLOMON, RUTH, LAMENTATIONS, Ecclesiastes, and ESTHER); an apocalyptic work, DANIEL; and EZRA- NEHEMIAH and 1 and 2 CHRONICLES. Christian Bibles arrange the books differently. The Law, or Pentateuch, comes first, then all the historical books. These are followed by the poetical, or wisdom, books and finally the prophetic books. Thus Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther appear in the second group and Daniel and Lamentations in the fourth. The Jews never ceased writing religious books. Several books composed in Hebrew or Greek after 300 BC are part of the SEPTUAGINT, or Old Greek version, and were regarded as Scripture by many Christians. Roman Catholics and the Orthodox include these books, called APOCRYPHA or deuterocanonical books, in the Bible. Protestants omit them or print them as an appendix to the Bible. From Groilers Anderson, Bernhard W., Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. (1986); Coats, George W., and Long, Burke O., eds., Canon and Authority (1977); McKenzie, John L., The Two-Edged Sword (1956); Sanders, James A., Torah and Canon (1972); Von Rad, Gerhard, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1962).

The Canon - New Testament The process by which the canon of the New Testament was formed began in the 2d century, probably with a collection of ten letters of Paul. Toward the end of that century, IRENAEUS argued for the unique authority of the portion of the Canon called the Gospels. Acceptance of the other books came gradually. The church in Egypt used more than the present 27 books, and the Syriac-speaking churches fewer. The question of an official canon became urgent during the 4th century. It was mainly through the influence of ATHANASIUS, bishop of Alexandria, and because JEROME included the 27 books in his Latin version of the Bible called the Vulgate, that the present canon came to be accepted. Divisions of the New Testament The New Testament consists of four Gospels, the ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, collections of Epistles, and the Book of REVELATION. The Gospels. Originally gospel meant "good news" (Greek evangelion). The term was later applied to books embodying this message. These are not biographies but proclamations of the good news in story form. Although all dates for New Testament books are debated, prevailing opinion dates MARK AD 68-72, LUKE and MATTHEW c.85, and JOHN 95-100. The first three, called synoptic because they can be compared side by side, have a complicated literary relationship with each other..

The parables--short illustrative stories told by Jesus, usually reflecting daily life--are prominent in the synoptics. The Gospel of John differs from the others in structure and reflects the theological development of the first century.

The Acts. The Acts of the Apostles was evidently written by Luke as a sequel to his Gospel. It recounts the traditions of the earliest churches in Palestine and gives the details of Paul's missionary journeys. The Epistles. Two kinds of Epistles are attributed to St. Paul in the New Testament.
Nine of them (ten, if EPHESIANS is included) are letters addressed by Paul to specific churches and deal mainly with problems of faith, morals, and community life. These letters disclose Paul's methods of dealing with pastoral problems.
The remainder are not actual letters; rather they are writings in letter form, intended for the whole church or large parts of it.

Thus, the pastoral Epistles--1 and 2 TIMOTHY and TITUS--written in Paul's name, contain directions for church leaders and warn against errors in doctrine and behavior.

HEBREWS is carefully constructed by an unknown author and interprets Christ as high priest and urges fidelity in time of persecution.

The general, or catholic, Epistles are so called because they are directed to the church as a whole.
The Epistle of JAMES emphasizes the importance of good deeds against an empty type of belief that involves no right action.
The first Epistle of PETER proclaims joy in the face of persecution and is addressed particularly to congregations with newly baptized members.
The Epistles of JOHN resemble the fourth Gospel. St. John teaches the intimate relationship between love of the brotherhood and the true doctrine about Christ; he also attacks division within the church.

Revelation. The Book of REVELATION was probably written to encourage Christians to be faithful during a persecution under Domitian (AD 81-96). It portrays the future through many symbols, and the prophet expects God's judgment on the Roman Empire, a 1,000-year reign of Christ, and a new heaven and a new Earth. From Groilers Grant, Robert M., The Formation of the New Testament (1966); Kee, Howard C., et al., Understanding the New Testament, 4th ed. (1983); Moule, C. F. D., The Birth of the New Testament, rev. ed. (1981); Robinson, James M., and Koester, Helmut, Trajectories through Early Christianity (1971)Back to Pilgrim Church - Clement To The Corinthians

Clerical System: Clergy: church title (noun)
church title, Holy Father
Eminence
Monsignor, Monseigneur
Lordship, Lord Spiritual
Most Reverend, Right Reverend, Very Reverend
the Reverend
parson, rector, vicar
father, brother, Dom
mother, sister
Roget's Thesaurus of English words and phrases is licensed from Longman Group UK Limited. Copyright © 1962, 1982, 1987 by Longman Group UK Limited. All rights reserved. Back to Pilgrim Church - The Churches and Greek Philosophy

Episcopal Power and Control: e pis co pa cy e pis co pa cy (î-pîs¹ke-pe-sê) noun plural e pis co pa cies 1. See episcopate. 2. A system of church government in which bishops are the chief clerics.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. Back to Pilgrim Church - The Churches And greek Philosophy

Layman
Laity: An artificial separation made by some church structures between officially ordained priests/ministers, and other believers. Little if anything to describe the idea in Scripture.
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Baptism: Baptism

bap tism bap tism (bàp¹tîz´em) noun 1. A religious sacrament marked by the symbolic use of water and resulting in admission of the recipient into the community of Christians. 2. A ceremony, a trial, or an experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a name.

[Middle English baptisme, from Old French, from Late Latin baptismus, from Greek baptismos, from baptizein, to baptize. ] — bap tis¹mal adjective — bap tis¹mal ly adverb The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.

Insertion: forcible ingress: immersion (noun)

immersion, submersion, submergence, LOWERING dip, bath, PLUNGE baptism, CHRISTIAN RITE burial, burial at sea, INTERMENT

Strongs Number - 908 baptisma {bap'-tis-mah} (From the Online Bible)
1) immersion, submersion 1a) of calamities and afflictions with which one is quite overwhelmed 1b) of John's baptism, that purification rite by which men on confessing their sins were bound to spiritual reformation, obtained the pardon of their past sins and became qualified for the benefits of the Messiah's kingdom soon to be set up. This was valid Christian baptism, as this was the only baptism the apostles received and it is not recorded anywhere that they were ever rebaptised after Pentecost. 1c) of Christian baptism; a rite of immersion in water as commanded by Christ, by which one after confessing his sins and professing his faith in Christ, having been born again by the Holy Spirit unto a new life, identifies publicly with the fellowship of Christ and the church. 907 baptizo {bap-tid'-zo}

AV - baptize (76), wash 2, baptist 1, baptized

1) to dip repeatedly, to immerse, to submerge (of vessels sunk)
2) to cleanse by dipping or submerging, to wash, to make clean with water, to wash one's self, bathe
3) to overwhelm
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Scriptures: see Canon
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Excommunicated: ex com mu ni ca tion (èks´ke-my¡´nî- kâ¹shen) noun 1. The act of excommunicating. 2. The state of being excommunicated. 3. A formal ecclesiastical censure that deprives a person of the right to belong to a church. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press
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Elucidation: e lu ci date e lu ci date (î-l¡¹sî-dât´) verb e lu ci dat ed, e lu ci dat ing, e lu ci dates verb, transitive To make clear or plain, especially by explanation; clarify.

verb, intransitive To give an explanation that serves to clarify. See Synonyms at explain.

[Late Latin êlúcidâre, êlúcidât- : ê-, ex-, intensive pref.. See ex- + Latin lúcidus, bright (from lúcêre, to shine).]

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Episcopate: See Episcopal Power and Control:
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Gnostic: Gnos ti cism (nòs¹tî-sîz´em) noun The doctrines of certain pre-Christian pagan, Jewish, and early Christian sects that valued the revealed knowledge of God and of the origin and end of the human race as a means to attain redemption for the spiritual element in human beings and that distinguished the Demiurge from the unknowable Divine Being. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.
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Mohammedan: Is lam (îs-läm¹, îz-, îs¹läm´, îz¹-) noun 1. A monotheistic religion characterized by the acceptance of the doctrine of submission to God and Mohammed as the chief and last prophet of God. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.

Mohammed, 610 AD The prophet Mohammed at Mecca begins secretly to preach a new religion, to be called Islam. Now 40, the onetime camel driver, who at 25 married the 40-year-old widow Khadija, his employer, has become a merchant. Having meditated for years on the ignorance and superstition of his fellow Arabs, he feels called upon to teach the new faith which will grow to embrace a major part of mankind in the millennium ahead (see 613). The People's Chronology is licensed from Henry Holt and Company, Inc. Copyright © 1992 by James Trager. All rights reserved.

Mec ca (mèk¹e) A city of western Saudi Arabia near the coast of the Red Sea. The birthplace of Mohammed, it is the holiest city of Islam and a pilgrimage site for all devout believers of the faith. Population, 550,000. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.

Islam Founded: 622 AD in Medina, Arabian peninsula. Founder: Mohammed (ca. 570-632), the Prophet. Sacred texts: Koran, the words of God. Hadith, collections of the sayings of the Prophet. Organization: Theoretically the state and religious community are one, administered by a caliph. In practice, Islam is a loose collection of congregations united by a very conservative tradition. Islam is basically egalitarian and non-authoritarian.

Practice: Every Moslem has 5 duties: to make the profession of faith ("There is no god but Allah …"), pray 5 times a day, give a regular portion of his goods to charity, fast during the day in the month of Ramadan, and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca if possible. Divisions: The 2 major sects of Islam are the Sunni (orthodox) and the Shi'ah. The Shi'ah believe in 12 imams, perfect teachers, who still guide the faithful from Paradise. Shi'ah practice tends toward the ecstatic, while the Sunni is staid and simple. The Shi'ah sect affirms man's free will; the Sunni is deterministic. The mystic tradition in Islam is Sufism. A Sufi adept believes he has acquired a special inner knowledge direct from Allah.

Location: From the west coast of Africa to the Philippines across a broad band that includes Tanzania, Central Asia and western China, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Islam has several million adherents in the U.S. Beliefs: Strictly monotheistic. God is creator of the universe, omnipotent, just, and merciful. Man is God's highest creation, but limited and commits sins. He is misled by Satan, an evil spirit. God revealed the Koran to Mohammed to guide men to the truth. Those who repent and sincerely submit to God return to a state of sinlessness. In the end, the sinless go to Paradise, a place of physical and spiritual pleasure, and the wicked burn in Hell. The World Almanac® and Book of Facts 1994 is licensed from Funk and Wagnalls Corporation. Copyright © 1993 by Funk and Wagnalls Corporation. All rights reserved. The World Almanac and The World Almanac Book of Facts are registered trademarks of Funk and Wagnalls Corporation.

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Nicene Creed: THE NICENE CREED The Nicene Creed is the most widely accepted and used brief statements of the Christian Faith. In liturgical churches, it is said every Sunday as part of the Liturgy. It is Common Ground to East Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Lutherans, Calvinists, and many other Christian groups. Many groups that do not have a tradition of using it in their services nevertheless are committed to the doctrines it teaches. (Someone may ask, "What about the Apostles' Creed?" Traditionally, in the West, the Apostles' Creed is used at Baptisms, and the Nicene Creed at the Eucharist (aka the Mass, the Liturgy, the Lord's Supper, or the Holy Communion). The East uses only the Nicene Creed.) I here present the Nicene Creed in two English translations, The first is the traditional one, in use with minor variations since 1549, The second is a modern version, that of (I think) The Interdenominational Committee on Liturgical Texts. Notes and comment by me follow. TRADITIONAL WORDING I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; he suffered and was buried; and the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father; and he shall come again, with glory, to judge both the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And I believe in the Holy Ghost the Lord, and Giver of Live, who proceedeth from the Father [and the Son]; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spake by the Prophets. And I believe one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church; I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. AMEN. MODERN WORDING We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. AMEN. NOTES AND COMMENT When the Apostles' Creed was drawn up, the chief enemy was Gnosticism, which denied that Jesus was truly Man; and the emphases of the Apostles' Creed reflect a concern with repudiating this error. When the Nicene Creed was drawn up, the chief enemy was Arianism, which denied that Jesus was fully God. Arius was a presbyter (= elder) in Alexandria in Egypt, in the early 300's. He taught that the Father, in the beginning, created (or begot) the Son, and that the Son, in conjunction with the Father, then proceeded to create the world. The result of this was to make the Son a created being, and hence not God in any meaningful sense. It was also suspiciously like the theories of those Gnostics and pagans who held that God was too perfect to create something like a material world, and so introduced one or more intermediate beings between God and the world. God created A, who created B, who created C... who created Z, who created the world. Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, sent for Arius and questioned him. Arius stuck to his position, and was finally excommunicated by a council of Egyptian bishops. He went to Nicomedia in Asia, where he wrote letters defending his position to various bishops. Finally, the Emperor Constantine summoned a council of Bishops in Nicea (across the straits from modern Istambul), and there in 325 the Bishops of the Church, by a decided majority, repudiated Arius and produced the first draft of what is now called the Nicene Creed. A chief spokesman for the full deity of Christ was Athanasius, deacon of Alexandria, assistant (and later successor) to the aging Alexander. The Arian position has been revived in our own day by the Watchtower Society (the JW's), who explicitly hail Arius as a great witness to the truth.
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Apocryphal: A poc ry pha (e-pòk¹re-fe) noun (used with a sing. or pl. verb) 1. Abbr. Apoc. Bible.. The 14 books of the Septuagint included in the Vulgate but considered uncanonical by Protestants because they are not part of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Roman Catholic canon accepts 11 of these books and includes them in the Douay Bible. 2. Abbr. Apoc.. Various early Christian writings proposed as additions to the New Testament but rejected by the major canons.

3. apocrypha. Writings or statements of questionable authorship or authenticity.

[Middle English apocripha, not authentic, from Late Latin Apocrypha, the Apocrypha, from Greek Apokrupha, neuter pl. of apokruphos, secret, hidden, from apokruptein, to hide away : apo-, apo- + kruptein, kruph-, to hide.]

a poc ry phal a poc ry phal (e-pòk¹re-fel) adjective 1. Of questionable authorship or authenticity. 2. Erroneous; fictitious: "Wildly apocryphal rumors about starvation in Petrograd . . . raced through Russia's trenches" (W. Bruce Lincoln). 3. ApocryphalAbbr. Apoc. Bible.. Of or having to do with the Apocrypha.

Huns: Huns, nomadic people who originated in north-central Asia. Although in customs they resemble the MONGOLS and MAGYARS, they appear not to have been related ethnically to other groups. Short and somewhat Mongoloid in appearance, the Huns were organized into ravaging military hordes riding small, rapid horses. In the 3d cent. B.C. they invaded China, where part of the GREAT WALL was built to exclude them. They appeared in the Volga valley c.372; the Goths were pushed west, where they destroyed the Roman Empire. Most of European Russia, Poland, and Germany paid tribute to ATTILA, the greatest Hun king. Defeated (451) in Gaul, the Huns ravaged Italy until Attila's death (453), after which little is known of them. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Goths: Goths

Ostrogoths Ostrogoths or East Goths, a division of the Goths, one of the chief groups of ancient GERMANS. In the 3d cent. the Goths split into VISIGOTHS, or West Goths, and Ostrogoths, who were subjects of the HUNS until 453. The Ostrogoths then settled in Pannonia (modern Hungary) as allies of the Byzantine Empire. Their ruler, Theodoric the Great, defeated ODOACER (493) and set up the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy. After the murder (535) of Theodoric's daughter, Amalasuntha, who as regent for her son was under Byzantine protection, JUSTINIAN I reconquered Italy through his generals BELISARIUS and NARSES. When Narses defeated (552) an Ostrogothic revolt under TOTILA, the Ostrogothic kingdom was crushed. Visigoths Visigoths or West Goths, a division of the Goths, one of the chief groups of ancient GERMANS. Separated from the OSTROGOTHS, or East Goths, they moved (376) into Roman territory under pressure of the HUNS. They routed the East Roman emperor VALENS at Adrianople (378), and their kings, ALARIC I and Ataulf, led them across Italy, sacking Rome in 410. The Visigoths expanded N to the Loire, made Toulouse their capital, and took Vandal lands in Spain. King Euric (r.466–c.484) brought them to their peak of power. After Alaric II lost (507) lands N of the Pyrenees to the Franks under CLOVIS, the Visigoths were essentially restricted to Spain. They became Christians and merged with the Spanish population. Anarchy followed the death (672) of King Recceswinth. Their last king, Roderick, was defeated (711) by the MOORS, who thus ended the Visigothic kingdom. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Byzantine Empire: Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire (bîz¹en-tên´), successor state to the Roman Empire (see ROME), also called the Eastern or East Roman Empire. It was named for ancient Byzantium, which CONSTANTINE I rebuilt in A.D. 330 as his capital, Constantinople. The Roman Empire split permanently (395) into East and West, but after the Western Empire fell (476) the Eastern Empire claimed the entire Roman world. Boundaries shifted, but the core of the Byzantine Empire was ASIA MINOR and the S BALKAN PENINSULA. Throughout its 1,000 years of existence the empire was continually beset by invaders. Also, there was constant religious controversy (see ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH; ICONOCLASM; MONOPHYSITISM; MONOTHELETISM) and internal political strife. Nevertheless, despite a complex administration, gross violence, and moral decay, the empire carried on Graeco-Roman civilization, blended with Middle Eastern influences, while the West was in chaos. It regained vigor in the 6th-cent. reign of JUSTINIAN I, under whom Byzantine art and architecture reached their peak, but his successors lost vast lands to the LOMBARDS and ARABS. The schism between the Eastern and Western churches arose soon after CHARLEMAGNE became emperor of the West (800). The reigns of BASIL I (9th cent.) and his successors brought renewed imperial splendor and vigor, until the defeat by the Seljuk TURKS (1071) and the loss of Asia Minor. The empire was further weakened by the attacks of the Norman leaders ROBERT GUISCARD and Bohemond. After a brief resurgence under ALEXIUS I, a century of decay ended with the Fourth CRUSADE, the fall of Constantinople (1204), and the breakup of the empire into NICAEA, TREBIZOND, and EPIRUS. The weak Latin empire of Venice was conquered by the Nicaean emperor MICHAEL VIII, who restored the Byzantine Empire. Gradually, however, the empire was encircled by the OTTOMAN Turks, and despite a desperate defense under CONSTANTINE XI Constantinople fell (1453) to MUHAMMAD II. The modern era is traditionally reckoned from that date. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Mongol: Mongols, Asian people, numbering nearly 3 million, who live in the Republic of Mongolia (formerly Outer Mongolia), Inner Mongolia (part of China), and Russia. A nomadic pastoral people, they merged their traditional shamanism with Buddhism in the 16th cent., creating Lamaism (see TIBETAN BUDDHISM). Early in the 13th cent. JENGHIZ KHAN united the feuding Mongol tribes into a powerful nation. From their capital at KARAKORUM the Mongols swept into Europe and China, by 1260 ruling a huge empire: the Great Khanate (see KUBLAI KHAN), comprising all of China; the Jagatai khanate, in Turkistan; the Kipchak khanate, in Russia (see GOLDEN HORDE, EMPIRE OF THE); and a khanate in Persia. The Mongol hordes with prominent Turkic elements came to be called TATARS. TIMUR, who founded a new empire in the 14th cent., claimed descent from Jenghiz Khan, as did BABUR, founder of the MOGUL empire. After their expulsion from China in 1382, the Mongols declined. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Franks: Franks (fràngks), group of Germanic tribes that settled by the 3d cent. along the Rhine. The Salian Franks, under CLOVIS I, moved into GAUL and overthrew (486) the Romans. Clovis united them with the Ripuarian Franks, and they accepted Christianity and founded the MEROVINGIAN dynasty. Their conquests eventually encompassed most of western and central Europe, including the kingdoms of Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. In the 8th cent. the rule of the CAROLINGIAN dynasty was culminated by the reign of CHARLEMAGNE. In 870 the kingdom of the West Franks became France and that of the East Franks became Germany. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Vandals: Vandal /´vndlz/ member of a Germanic people related to the Goths. In the 5th century AD the Vandals invaded Roman Gaul and Spain, many settling in Andalusia (formerly Vandalitia) and others reaching N Africa 429. They sacked Rome 455 but were defeated by Belisarius, general of the emperor Justinian, in the 6th century. Encyclopedia © 1994 Helicon Publishing Ltd.
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Alaric: Alaric I, c.370–410, Visigothic king.
After the death of Roman Emperor THEODOSIUS I he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by STILICHO, invaded Italy, and sacked Rome (410 AD). The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Constantinople: Constantinople (kòn´stàn-te-no¹pel), former capital of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE and of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, called ISTANBUL since 1930. It was founded (A.D. 330) at BYZANTIUM as the new capital of the Roman Empire by CONSTANTINE I and became the largest, most splendid medieval European city. Built on seven hills above the BOSPORUS, it had such magnificent buildings as the church of HAGIA SOPHIA and the emperors' palace (a city in itself), and many artistic and literary treasures. It was conquered in 1204 by Crusaders (see CRUSADES), in 1261 by MICHAEL VIII, and in 1453 by MUHAMMAD II. Almost depopulated when it fell to the Turks, the city recovered quickly, and was embellished by the Ottoman sultans who built palaces and mosques. After WORLD WAR I Constantinople was occupied (1918–23) by the Allies. In 1923 Kemal ATATÜRK made ANKARA Turkey's capital. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

Turks. Turkic peoples, of Central Asian ancestry, were a military threat to the Byzantine and Persian Empires from the 6th century. After several waves of invasions, during which most of the Turks adopted Islam, the Seljuk Turks took Baghdad, 1055. They ruled Persia, Iraq, and, after 1071, Asia Minor, where massive numbers of Turks settled. The empire was divided in the 12th century into smaller states ruled by Seljuks, Kurds (Saladin c1137-93), and Mamelukes (a military caste of former Turk, Kurd, and Circassian slaves), which governed Egypt and the Middle East until the Ottoman era (c1290-1922) The World Almanac® and Book of Facts 1994 is licensed from Funk and Wagnalls Corporation. Copyright © 1993 by Funk and Wagnalls Corporation. All rights reserved. The World Almanac and The World Almanac Book of Facts are registered trademarks of Funk and Wagnalls Corporation.
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Turks: Turks, Turkic-speaking peoples found today in Turkey, the Soviet Union, Chinese Turkistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, totaling 73 million. Of widely varying histories and ethnic intermixtures, the different groups vary greatly in appearance and culture, being unified chiefly by linguistic affinity and social organization. The name Turk was first used in the 6th cent. by the Chinese for a nomadic people whose empire stretched from Mongolia to the Black Sea. Turkic peoples controlled this vast area until 924. The most important Turkic groups in the history of W Asia and Europe were the Seljuks and the Ottoman Turks. After the Turks adopted ISLAM, they began migrating in great numbers to the Middle East. By 1055 the Seljuks had conquered Iran; by 1071 they controlled Armenia, Syria, and much of Asia Minor. In the 12th cent. the Seljuk empire broke up into independent states that were overrun in the next century by JENGHIZ KHAN. After the Mongol wave receded, the Osmanli Turks completed the overthrow of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE, and in the 14th and 15th cent. they created the vast OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Numidia: Nu mid i a (n¡-mîd¹ê-e, ny

An ancient country of northwest Africa corresponding roughly to present-day Algeria.
It was part of the Carthaginian empire before the Punic Wars and became a separate kingdom after 201 B.C. Conquered by Rome in 46 B.C. and invaded by the Vandals in the fifth century A.D., Numidia was overrun by the Arabs in the eighth century. — Nu mid¹i an adjective & noun The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
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Donatists: Members of a puritanical Christian movement in 4th- and 5th- century N Africa, named after Donatus of Casae Nigrae, a 3rd- century bishop, later known as Donatus of Carthage. The Donatists became for a time the major Christian movement in N Africa; following the tradition of Montanism, their faith stressed the social revolutionary aspects of Christianity, the separation of church from state, and a belief in martyrdom and suffering. Their influence was ended by Bishop Augustine of Hippo; they were formally condemned 412. Encyclopedia © 1994 Helicon Publishing Ltd. (Hutchenson)
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Pelagius: Pelagius 360–420 /pe´le‰d™i•s/ British theologian. He taught that each person possesses free will (and hence the possibility of salvation), denying Augustine's doctrines of predestination and original sin. Cleared of heresy by a synod in Jerusalem 415, he was later condemned by the pope and the emperor. Encyclopedia © 1994 Helicon Publishing Ltd. (Websters)
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Cyprian: 200?–258, Father of the Church, bishop of CARTHAGE (c.248). He supported the papal view that Christians who had apostasized under persecution should be readmitted to the church. He was martyred in the persecution of the Roman emperor Valerian. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Asceticism: as·cet·ic (e-sèt¹îk) noun
A person who renounces material comforts and leads a life of austere self-discipline, especially as an act of religious devotion.

adjective
1. Leading a life of self-discipline and self-denial, especially for spiritual improvement. See Synonyms at severe.
2. Pertaining to or characteristic of an ascetic; self-denying and austere: an ascetic existence.

[Late Greek askêtikos, from Greek askêtês, practitioner, hermit, monk, from askein, to work.]
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.
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Tyrannies: tyr·an·ny (tîr¹e-nê) noun - plural tyr·an·nies

1. A government in which a single ruler is vested with absolute power.
2. The office, authority, or jurisdiction of an absolute ruler.
3. Absolute power, especially when exercised unjustly or cruelly: "I have sworn . . . eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man" (Thomas Jefferson).
4. a. Use of absolute power. b. A tyrannical act.
5. Extreme harshness or severity; rigor.

[Middle English tyrannie, from Old French, from Late Latin tyrannia, from Greek turannia, from turannos, tyrant.]
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is licensed from Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Selected Illustrations from the Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1991 by Columbia University Press.
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